Educational philosophy

Standardizing language for philosophies of education

Standardizing a learning process requires language that will enable professionals to coordinate their efforts. This blog is written to support the use of existing terminology, as well as plea for the acceptance of recently proposed new terminology, that illustrates the organizational principles underlying acquisition of knowledge. This information is classified under Library of Congress scheme T10.5-11.9: Communication of technical information. Standardizing a learning process involves technologies that guide young learners through programmed experiences, as well as, thoughtfully involving mature learners. Successful instruction requires more than an intuitive or personal understanding of a particular concept, principle, theory, or philosophy; it requires the caregiver, teacher, mentor, or facilitator to understand ways of appropriately representing ideas to meet the learners’ needs.

Keywords: Philosophy of education, e-learning methodology, learning methodology, learning syntax, diaskagogy, pedagogy, andragogy, heutagogy, behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, constructivism, knowledge development, flexible learning, open learning, LMS, MLE, LCM, VLE, Educational theory, Instructional theory, Learning theory, teaching, learning, E-learning

DISCUSSION FOR PART ONE

Standardizing a learning process requires language that will enable professionals to coordinate their efforts. This literature review seeks to clarify existing terminology, plea for the acceptance of proposed new terminology, and make clear the organizational principles underlying acquisition of knowledge; thereby, adding to the body of knowledge concerning syntax for learning and teaching methodology. The provided information and resources seek to enhance an educator’s ability to discuss learning and teaching methodology.

Philosophies of education

According to Peters (1997), a reputable, well considered, philosophy of education needs to include a knowledge theory, a human nature theory, and an ethics theory. Also, it should include a psychology of learning and teaching methodologies that describe what education should be, what methods it should use, what traits it should cultivate, how and in whom it should cultivate those traits, and why it should cultivate those traits (Guthrie 2002).

Behaviourism

The knowledge theory of behaviorism denotes a change in knowledge through controlled stimulus/response conditioning. The learning goal is the lowest order of learning: memorization of factual knowledge, skill development, and training. This type of learning is a conditioned response or memorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The Multiple Intelligence [MI] focus is visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, and bodily/kinesthetic. The human nature theory of behaviorism applies to learners who are dependent learners that adopt knowledge from a caregiver. The caregiver’s role is to build schema by demonstrating factual knowledge. The purpose in education is to build schema by adopting knowledge from an instructor, where the instructor observes, measures, and modifies behavioral change in a specified direction. The ethics theory of behaviorism is that anyone can be educated as exemplified by Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard (1775-1838), frequently called the father of special education.

Cognitivism

The knowledge theory of Cognitivism denotes a sequential development of individual mental processes such as recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate. This learning process is based on an individual’s sequential development of cognitive abilities, such that mental processes of recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate are developed through careful guidance by a trained instructor– a teacher. The type of learning is adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization, and structure to develop internal cognitive structure by strengthening synapses in the brain. The learning goal is low order learning of conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving [solving well-defined problems]. The human nature theory of cognitivism is that a learner requires expert assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge – learning how to learn. Sequential development of cognitive abilities involves verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences, which are part of the MI focus. The purpose in education is to develop schema using knowledge gained from others and the environment. The teacher’s role is to develop conceptual knowledge and manage the content of learning activities. The ethics theory of cognitivism is that neurogenesis allows people of all ages to acquire a higher IQ independent of race, gender, or social status.

Humanism

The knowledge theory of Humanism denotes an in depth knowledge of self and others developed through guided interaction that evokes the affective component of learning to motivate fulfillment of maximum potential. This learning process is needs motivated adaptive learning. The type of learning involves development of strategy, personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision-making that ultimately develop expertise. The human nature theory for humanism describes a learner that is self-directed toward acquisition, development, and integration of knowledge and guided by a mentor who encourages and enables the learner, andragogically, by providing access to appropriate resources without obtrusive interference. The development of strategy, personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision-making draws upon interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. The purpose in education is to become self-actualized with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment. The learner is able to adapt prior knowledge to new experience. The learning goal is high order learning of procedural knowledge, strategy, reasoning, abstract analysis, and development of expertise. The ethics theory of humanism evokes the affective component of learning to motivate fulfillment of maximum potential of self and others. Such terms as Social Constructivism and Connectivism [a neologism used in e-learning] share characteristics with Humanism.

Constructivism

The knowledge theory of Constructivism denotes constructing and conditionalizing knowledge through experiential learning based on real life experience. The type of learning is problem based adaptive learning that challenges faulty schema, integrates new knowledge with existing knowledge that allows for creation of original work or innovative procedures. The human nature theory describes a type of learner who is self-directed, creative, and innovative requiring only a facilitator to guide them during heuristic problem solving of ill-defined problems. The facilitator enables quested learning that allows modification of existing knowledge and allows for creation of new knowledge. This adaptive learning challenges faulty schema, integrates new knowledge with existing knowledge, and allows for creation of original work or innovative procedures drawing on visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, bodily kinesthetic, verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. The purpose in education is to become creative and innovative through analysis, conceptualizations, and synthesis of prior experience to create new knowledge. The learning goal is the highest order of learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity, and originality. The ethics theory of Constructivism is that learners have the right to choose and influence their own learning.

Learning Theory Evolution

Learning theories continue to evolve based on assimilation or accommodation of existing theories, as well as, new research coming from neuroscience and concepts resulting from social or political debate.

Educational Theories

A psychology of learning : learning theory

In his 1983 book Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner proposed a theory of intelligence, which is now referred to as The Theory of Multiple Intelligences [MI]. Gardner articulated criteria for a behavior to be considered intelligence then chose eight abilities that he thought met the criteria 1.) Musical–rhythmic, 2.) Visual–spatial, 3.) Verbal–linguistic, 4.) Logical–mathematical, 5.) Bodily–kinesthetic, 6.) Interpersonal, 7.) Intrapersonal, and 8.) Naturalistic. A ninth ability, Existential – moral intelligence, he later thought worthy of inclusion. Gardner maintains that MI should not restrict a learner to one mode of learning and that each individual possesses a unique blend of all the intelligences.

In his 1956 volume, Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals, Benjamin Bloom outlined a classification of learning objectives that has come to be known as Bloom's Taxonomy. Presented in matrix form, it is used to assess three different domains of learning and is commonly referred to as a KSA Matrix [Knowledge, Skills, Attitude Matrix ], it is used to assess the development of Cognitive mental skills, Psychomotor manual or phsyical skills, and Affective growth in feelings or emotional goals.

Robert Gagné's Assumption is that different types of learning exist and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning. The Gagné Assumption may ultimately defend the use of different learning theories at different stages of development. Summarized, the five categories of learning are 1.) intellectual skills that create individual competence and ability to respond to stimuli; 2.) cognitive strategies that enhance capability to learn, think, and remember; 3.) verbal information that includes rote memorization of names, faces, dates, phone numbers, etc. 4.) motor skill that includes kinesthetic capabilities involved in learning to drive a car, ride a bike, draw a straight line, etc. and 5.) attitudes the reflect ingrained bias towards different ideas, people, situation, and may affect how one acts towards these things. Summarized, the eight ways to learn are 1.) signal learning as a general response to a signal [e.g. a dog responding to a command] 2.) stimulus-response learning which is a precise response to a distinct stimulus; 3.) chaining of two or more stimulus-response connections; 4.) verbal association of two learning chains; 5.) discrimination learning where the ability to make different responses to similar-appearing stimuli is exhibited; 6.) concept learning as a common response to a class of stimuli; 7.) rule learning of a chain of two or more concepts; 8.) problem solving where learning involves structured thought.

Teaching methodologies: instructional theory evolution

Instructional Theories have evolved  as a result of new research coming from neuroscience and concepts resulting from social or political debate.

Diaskagogy

Diaskagogy [dee-es-kuh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] is a neologism developed for preschool education instructional theory at North Carolina State University in response to sampling the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NEAYC) for the dissertation 'Internet Activities for a Preschool Technology Education Program Guided by Caregivers.' Diaskagogy focuses on schema building. The caregiver demonstrates factual knowledge observing, measuring, and modifying behavioral change in a specified direction. The term allows for academic discussion of many centuries of preschool education instructional theory. The instructor/child relationship in this scenario is one of entertainment. Where the caregiver demonstrates factual knowledge to build schema. The Caregiver observes, measures, and modifies behavioral change in specified direction. The instructor/child relationship in this scenario is one of entertainment. The word for entertainer in Greek is διασκεδάζων (the Latin translation is genius). When combined with the Greek άγω (ago) to "lead," the construed meaning is "to lead the entertainer” and the transliteration from the Greek leads to the word Diaskagogy di•as•ka•go•gy [dee-es-kuh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] is used to describe Preschool education.

Pedagogy

Pedagogy requires a teacher to develop conceptual knowledge and manage the content of learning activities. Learners at this level need assistance developing existing knowledge and combining that knowledge with new knowledge. Pedagogy allows for sequential development of individual mental processes such as recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate. This level is an early stage of learning where problems are well defined; where conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving develop Verbal/Linguistic and Logical/Mathematical intelligences. Pedagogy enforces adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization, and structure which develop internal cognitive structure [strengthens synapses in the brain]. The child, in level one, must learn how to learn by developing existing schema and adopting knowledge from both people and the environment. Pedagogy [ped-ah-goh-jee, -goj-ee] comes from the Greek παιδαγωγέω (pedagogue); in which παιδί (ped) means "child” and άγω (ago) means "lead"; so it literally means "to lead the child" where an instructor develops conceptual knowledge and manages the content of learning activities. Other relevant roots from Greek include μικρό παιδί or toddler; αγόρι or boy child; κοριτσιών or girl child; μικρό παιδί or young child.

Andragogy

Andragogy [an-druh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] is a term used by the German educator Alexander Kapp in 1833 to describe adult education. The American educator Malcolm Knowles developed Andragogy into a theory of adult education. The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρο (andro-) or “man” [rather than ενήλικ which means "adult”] and άγω (ago) to "lead"; so it is construed to mean, "to lead the man.” Learning strategies focus on mature learning with a mentor that encourages, enables the mature learner by providing access to appropriate resources, and refrains from obtrusive interference.

Heutagogy

Heutagogy [hyoo-tah-goh-jee, -goj-ee], a term attributed to Stewart Hase [Southern Cross University] and Chris Kenyon of Australia, is the study of self-determined learning. The irregular formation of the Greek words ευρετικός (heurista) meaning to “discover,” εφευρετικός (heuretikos) meaning "inventive," εύρημα (heuriskein) meaning to "find," and άγω (ago) to "lead"; provide the root words leading the interpretion "to lead to invention, discoveries, findings." Heutagogy consists of learning strategies focused on mature learners who are self-directed, who may engage a facilitator to enable quested learning, which will allow for modification of existing knowledge and creation of new knowledge.

SOURCES AND FURTHER READING

Allison-Bunnell, S., Schaller, D. T. (2005). From the Physical to the Virtual: Bringing Free-Choice Science Education Online, eduweb. Retrieved  1 December 2012 from http://www.eduweb.com/virtual_science_centers.html. Also, in E-Learning and Virtual Science Centers, edited by Leo Tan and R. Subramaniam. Hershey, PA: Idea Group

Axelrod, R. (1973). Schema theory: An information-processing model of perception and cognition. The American Political Science Review, 67 (4) 1248-1266.  Retrieved 26 March 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0554%28197312%2967%3A4%3C1248%3ASTAIPM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: An experimental and social study. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Breuer, J., Bente, G. (2010). Why so serious? On the Relation of Serious Games and Learning. Journal for Computer Game Culture. 4 (1), p. 7-24. Accessed 1 December 2012 http://www.eludamos.org/index.php/eludamos/article/viewArticle/vol4no1-2/146

Duchastel, P. (1999). Prolegomena to a Theory of Instructional Design. Fort Lauderdale-Davie, FL: Nova Southeastern University. Accessed 5 December 2012 http://itforum.coe.uga.edu/paper27/paper27.html.

ForgeFX (2011). Simulation and Real-time 3D Software Development. San Francisco, CA: ForgeFX, LLC. Accessed 1 December 2012 http://www.forgefx.com/articles/index.htm

Guthrie, James W. (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas. Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edition. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 0-02-865594-X.

Lombardi, S.M. (2006-2014). technology4kids: 2nd Edition: Caregiver Study Guides. Accessed 27 March 2014 from    http://technology4kids.info/technology4kids_definitions.html .

Lombardi, S.M. (2011). Internet Activities for a Preschool Technology Education Program Guided by Caregivers. (Doctoral dissertation). North Carolina State University. Retrieved 29 December 2011 from http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/ir/bitstream/1840.16/6826/1/etd.pdf

Peters, R.S. (1977). Education and the education of teachers (Reprinted. ed.). London: Routledge & K. Paul. p. 77. ISBN 0710084692.

Respondus, Inc. (2012). Respondus LockDown Browser™. Redmond, WA : Respondus. Accessed 1 December 2012 http://www.respondus.com/products/lockdown-browser/#1

Silva, N. S. A., Costa, G. J. M., Rogerson, S., & Prior, M. (2009). Knowledge versus content in e-learning: A philosophical discussion. Springer Science+Business Media UK Ltd. Chester, United Kingdom: Springer, Ltd.

Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus Pub

Super-team

In a 'Super-team',  a variation of a High-performance team, a single person is not the leader throughout the entire project. Leadership is based on different experiences and education among participants. Different people will know more about different subjects; therefore, leadership for different tasks changes. The most knowledgeable person, the person with expertise, has the role of leader for that piece of work.¹ Everyone on a Super-team is selected for their expertise. These experts experience continuous learning from each other throughout the team project. As Ciampa ² points out, people cannot be forced, they must want to do a task, done in the right way, a sense of ownership of results develops among each team member. Harrington ³agrees with the need for individual involvement in projects, and states that cross-functional groups are beneficial to an organization. Zeffane ⁴ makes the point that through participation, participants become committed, shifting responsibility for change to team members where there is no “boss” to rebel against; thereby, reducing resistance to change. Tuckman ⁵ conducted work that proposed four stages of development experienced by new teams. Tuckman lists these four stages as:

' Forming - Awareness:'

*Feelings, weaknesses and mistakes are covered up.

*People conform to established lines.

*Little care is shown for others' values and views.

*There is no shared understanding of what needs to be done.

' Storming - Conflict:'

*More risky, personal issues are opened up.

*The team becomes more inward looking.

*There is more concern for the values, views and problems of others in the team.

' Norming - Co-operation:'

*Confidence and trust to look at how the team is operating.

*A more systematic and open approach, leading to a clearer and more methodical way of working.

*Greater valuing of people for their differences.

*Clarification of purpose and establishing of objectives.

*Systematic collection of information.

*Considering all options.

*Preparing detailed plans.

*Reviewing progress to make improvements (part of a continuous improvement process).

' Performing - Productivity:'

*Flexibility

*Leadership decided by situations, not protocol.

*Everyone's energies are utilized.

*Basic principles and social aspects of the organization’s decisions considered.

Lloyd and Feigen ^[6] warn that broad based behavioral changes are required of traditional managers in their new roles as team member/leaders. Behavioral changes will require them to learn new skills around the concept of their role as team member/leader, as opposed to the role of a manager as the "boss."

References

1.      Sharp J.M., Hides M.T. and Bamber C. J. Continuous Organisational Learning through the development of High Performance Teams HPO Research Group, Business School, University of Salford, UK E-mail: J.M.Sharp@Salford.ac.uk

2.     Ciampa (1991) Ciampa D. (1991). Total Quality - A User's Guide for Implementation. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co Inc. DeToro I. and McCabe T. (1997). How to Stay Flexible and Elude Fads. Quality Progress, March, vol:30,no:3, pp:55-60.

3.     Harrington H. J. (1997). The Fallacy of Universal Best Practices. The TQM Magazine, vol:9, no:1, pp:61-75. (1997)

4.      Zeffane R. (1996). Dynamics of Strategic Change : Critical Issues in Fostering Positive Organisational Change.

5.     Tuckman B.W. and Jensen M.A. (1977). Stages of Small Group Development Revisited. Group and Organisational Studies, vol:2, no:4, pp:419-427. et al

6.      Lloyd B. and Feigen M. (1997). Real Change Leaders : The Key Challenge for Management Today Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, vol:18, no:1, pp:37-40. .